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Opening Dao a Documentary Film on Taoism and Martial Arts Yin Yang

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Religious/philosophical tradition of Chinese origin

This article is virtually Taoism as a traditional faith from Cathay. For Taoism as a Chinese philosophy, see Taoist philosophy. For Taoism as a new religious motion/concept in Western world, see History of Taoism § Taoism in the W.

Taoism
Tao.svg

Tao, a Chinese word signifying fashion, path, route, route or, sometimes more than loosely, doctrine.
Chinese 道教
Hanyu Pinyin Dàojiào[ane]
Literal meaning "Style Tradition"

Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; daojia) or to a religion (道教; daojiao); both share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the Tao (Chinese: 道; pinyin: Dào ; lit. 'Fashion', 'Thoroughfare' or Dao). The Tao Te Ching, a book containing teachings attributed to Laozi (老子), together with the later writings of Zhuangzi, are both widely considered the keystone works of Taoism.

In Taoism, the Tao is the source of everything and the ultimate principle underlying reality.[2] [three] Taoism teaches about the various disciplines for achieving perfection through cocky-cultivation. This can exist washed through the use of Taoist techniques and past becoming one with the unplanned rhythms of the all, called "the style" or "Tao".[2] [iv] Taoist ethics vary depending on the particular schoolhouse, but in full general tend to emphasize wu wei (action without intention), naturalness, simplicity, spontaneity and the Three Treasures: 慈 , compassion, 儉 , frugality and 不敢爲天下先 , humility.

The roots of Taoism go dorsum at least to the 4th century BCE. Early Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the Schoolhouse of Yinyang (Naturalists) and was securely influenced by one of the oldest texts of Chinese culture, the I Ching, which expounds a philosophical system about how to continue human behavior in accordance with the alternating cycles of nature. The Legalist Shen Buhai (c. 400 – c. 337 BCE) may also accept been a major influence, expounding a realpolitik of wu wei, or qualified inaction.[5]

Taoism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture in the form of the centuries and Taoists (道士; dàoshi , "masters of the Tao"), a title traditionally attributed only to the clergy and not to their lay followers, usually accept care to note the stardom between their ritual tradition and the practices of Chinese folk organized religion and not-Taoist vernacular ritual orders, which are oft mistakenly identified as pertaining to Taoism. Chinese abracadabra (peculiarly neidan), Chinese star divination, Chan (Zen) Buddhism, several martial arts including kung fu, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui and many styles of qigong accept been intertwined with Taoism throughout history.

Today, the Taoist religion is ane of the v religious doctrines officially recognized by the Red china (Cathay), including in its special administrative regions (SARs) of Hong Kong and Macau.[6] It is also a major religion in Taiwan[7] and has a pregnant number of adherents in a number of other societies throughout East and Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaysia, Singapore and Vietnam.

Definition [edit]

Birth places of notable Chinese philosophers from Hundred Schools of Thought in Zhou Dynasty. Philosophers of Taoism are marked by triangles in night light-green.

Spelling and pronunciation [edit]

Since the introduction of the Pinyin system for romanizing Mandarin Chinese, in that location take been those who accept felt that "Taoism" would be more appropriately spelled every bit "Daoism". The Mandarin Chinese pronunciation for the word 道 (way, path) is spelled equally tao4 in the older Wade–Giles romanization organization (from which the spelling 'Taoism' is derived), while it is spelled every bit dào in the newer Pinyin romanization system (from which the spelling "Daoism" is derived). Both the Wade–Giles taoiv and the Pinyin dào are pronounced identically in Mandarin Chinese (similar the unaspirated 't' in 'cease'); despite this, "Taoism" and "Daoism" are oft pronounced differently in English vernacular.[eight]

Categorization [edit]

The give-and-take Taoism is used to interpret dissimilar Chinese terms which refer to two semantically singled-out fields:[9]

  1. Taoist faith (道敎; Dàojiào ; lit. "teachings of the Tao"), or the "liturgical" aspect[x] – A family of organized religious movements sharing concepts or terminology from "Taoist philosophy";[eleven] the commencement of these is recognized as the Celestial Masters schoolhouse.
  2. Taoist philosophy (道家; Dàojiā ; lit. "schoolhouse or family of the Tao") or "Taology" (道學; dàoxué ; lit. "study of the Tao"), or the mystical aspect[10] – The philosophical doctrines based on the texts of the I Ching, the Tao Te Ching (道德經; dàodéjīng ) and the Zhuangzi (莊子; zhuāngzi ). The earliest recorded uses of the term Tao to refer to a philosophy or a school of thought are found in the works of classical historians during Han Dynasty.[12] [13] These works include The Commentary of Zhuo (左传; zuǒ zhuàn) by Zuo Qiuming (左丘明) and in the Records of the Grand Historian (史記; Shǐjì) by Sima Tan. This usage of the term to narrowly denote a school of thought precedes the emergence of the Angelic Masters and associated later religions. It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Tao Te Ching,[14] [15] and Zhuangzi himself may have died earlier the term was in utilize.[fifteen]

In ancient China, the use of the term Taoist to narrowly draw a school of thought, rather than a set of religious teachings, has been recorded as early on as 100 BCE[16] [17] and such usage precedes the emergence of the earliest Taoist religious sects such as the Angelic Masters past at to the lowest degree 300 years.

The distinction between Taoist philosophy (道家) and religion (道教) has been maintained by modern pioneers of Chinese philosophy Feng Youlan (馮友蘭; 1895-1990) and Wing-tsit Chan (陳榮捷; 1901–1994). The distinction as advocated past outstanding philosophers such as Feng and Chan, however, is rejected by the bulk of Western and Japanese scholars.[18] It is contested by hermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorization of the different Taoist schools, sects and movements.[19]

Taoism does non fall under an umbrella or a definition of a unmarried faith like the Abrahamic traditions; nor can information technology be studied every bit a mere variant of Chinese folk religion, as although the two share some similar concepts, much of Chinese folk religion is dissever from the tenets and core teachings of Taoism.[twenty] The sinologists Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn agree that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations."[21]

The philosopher Chung-ying Cheng views Taoism equally a faith that has been embedded into Chinese history and tradition. "Whether Confucianism, Taoism, or later Chinese Buddhism, they all fall into this design of thinking and organizing and in this sense remain religious, even though individually and intellectually they as well assume forms of philosophy and practical wisdom."[22] Chung-ying Cheng as well noted that the Taoist view of heaven flows mainly from "ascertainment and meditation, [though] the educational activity of the way (Tao) can also include the way of heaven independently of homo nature".[22] In Chinese history, the iii religions of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism stand on their own independent views, and all the same are "involved in a process of attempting to detect harmonization and convergence amidst themselves, so that nosotros can speak of a 'unity of three religious teachings' (三敎合一; Sānjiào Héyī ).[22]

The terms "Taoist" and "Taoism" every bit a liturgical framework [edit]

Traditionally, the Chinese linguistic communication does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. Taoist, in Western sinology, is traditionally used to translate daoshi ( 道士 , "master of the Tao"), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism, ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional person basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can use this knowledge and ritual skills for the do good of a community.[23]

This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism every bit a "liturgical framework for the evolution of local cults", in other words a scheme or construction for Chinese religion, proposed offset past the scholar and Taoist initiate Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Torso (1986).[24] Daoshi are comparable to the non-Taoist fashi ( 法師 , "ritual masters") of vernacular traditions (the and then-called "Faism") inside Chinese organized religion.[24]

The term dàojiàotú (道敎徒; 'follower of Taoism'), with the significant of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of "organized faith" in China in the 20th century, but it has no significance for well-nigh of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to exist an "gild" of the larger body of Chinese religion.

History [edit]

Laozi Riding an Ox (1368–1644) by Zhang Lu

Laozi is traditionally regarded as one of the founders of Taoism and is closely associated in this context with original or primordial Taoism.[25] Whether he actually existed is disputed;[26] [27] however, the work attributed to him—the Tao Te Ching—is dated to the late quaternary century BCE.[28]

Taoism draws its cosmological foundations from the School of Naturalists (in the form of its master elements—yin and yang and the V Phases), which developed during the Warring States period (4th to 3rd centuries BCE).[29]

Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism:

  1. Philosophical Taoism, i.e. the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi
  2. techniques for achieving ecstasy
  3. practices for achieving longevity or immortality
  4. exorcism[26]

Some elements of Taoism may exist traced to prehistoric folk religions in China that afterward coalesced into a Taoist tradition.[xxx] In item, many Taoist practices drew from the Warring-States-era phenomena of the wu (continued to the shamanic culture of northern China) and the fangshi (which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity, ane of whom supposedly was Laozi himself"), even though afterwards Taoists insisted that this was non the case.[31] Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "... magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism; in the instance of the wu, shamans or sorcerers is often used as a translation.[31] The fangshi were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists, and relied much on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities.[32]

The first organized form of religious Taoism, the Way of the Angelic Masters'southward school (later known as Zhengyi school), adult from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the finish of the 2nd century CE; the latter had been founded by Zhang Taoling, who said that Laozi appeared to him in the twelvemonth 142.[33] The Mode of the Celestial Masters school was officially recognized by ruler Cao Cao in 215, legitimizing Cao Cao'due south rise to power in return.[34] Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2d century BCE.[35]

Past the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the diverse sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of religious organizations and orders of ritualists in the state of Shu (modern Sichuan). In before ancient China, Taoists were thought of as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life. Zhuangzi was the best known of these, and information technology is significant that he lived in the south, where he was part of local Chinese shamanic traditions.[36]

Female shamans played an important role in this tradition, which was particularly stiff in the southern land of Chu. Early Taoist movements developed their own institution in contrast to shamanism but absorbed basic shamanic elements. Shamans revealed basic texts of Taoism from early times downwards to at least the 20th century.[37] Institutional orders of Taoism evolved in various strains that in more recent times are conventionally grouped into two main branches: Quanzhen Taoism and Zhengyi Taoism.[38] Later on Laozi and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the Tao Tsang—which was published at the behest of the emperor. Throughout Chinese history, Taoism was nominated several times equally a land organized religion. After the 17th century, it fell from favor.

Taoism, in grade of the Shangqing school, gained official status in Communist china once again during the Tang dynasty (618–907), whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative.[39] The Shangqing movement had developed much earlier, in the quaternary century, on the ground of a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi in the years between 364 and 370.[40]

Betwixt 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled a series of scriptures which later served every bit the foundation of the Lingbao school,[41] which unfolded its greatest influence during the Song dynasty (960–1279).[42] Several Song emperors, about notably Huizong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang. [43]

Qiu Chuji (1503) past Guo Xu

In the 12th century, the Quanzhen Schoolhouse was founded in Shandong. It flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries and during the Yuan dynasty became the largest and most important Taoist school in Northern Red china. The school'due south about revered master, Qiu Chuji, met with Genghis Khan in 1222 and was successful in influencing the Khan towards exerting more restraint during his brutal conquests. Past the Khan's decree, the school also was exempt from taxation.[44]

Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian schoolhouse, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for country bureaucratic purposes under the Ming (1368–1644).[45]

During the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), however, due to discouragements of the government, many people favored Confucian and Buddhist classics over Taoist works.

During the 18th century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist books.[46] By the beginning of the 20th century, Taoism went through many catastrophic events. (As a result, just one complete re-create of the Tao Tsang nevertheless remained, at the White Deject Monastery in Beijing).[47]

Today, Taoism is one of five official recognized religions in the People'south Republic of Mainland china. The government regulates its activities through the Chinese Taoist Clan.[48] However, Taoism is practiced without government involvement in Taiwan, where information technology claims millions of adherents.

Earth Heritage Sites Mount Qingcheng and Mount Longhu are idea to be among the birthplaces of Taoism.

Doctrines [edit]

Ethics [edit]

Taoism tends to emphasize diverse themes of the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi, such equally naturalness, spontaneity, simplicity, detachment from desires, and virtually important of all, wu wei.[49] The concepts of those keystone texts cannot exist equated with Taoism every bit a whole.[50]

Tao and De [edit]

Tao (道; dào ) literally means "way", simply can too exist interpreted as road, aqueduct, path, doctrine, or line.[51] In Taoism, it is "the Ane, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course."[52] It has variously been denoted as the "flow of the universe",[53] a "conceptually necessary ontological ground",[54] or a demonstration of nature.[55] The Tao also is something that individuals tin can find immanent in themselves.[56]

The active expression of Tao is called De (德; dé ; too spelled—Te or Teh; oft translated with Virtue or Power),[57] in a sense that De results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao.[58]

Wu-wei [edit]

The polysemous term wu-wei or wuwei (無爲; wúwéi ) constitutes the leading upstanding concept in Taoism.[59] Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while wu carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without". Common translations are nonaction, effortless action, or action without intent.[59] The meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": activity without activeness.[threescore]

In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with h2o through its yielding nature.[61] Taoist philosophy, in accordance with the I Ching, proposes that the universe works harmoniously co-ordinate to its ain ways. When someone exerts their will confronting the globe in a manner that is out of rhythm with the cycles of change, they may disrupt that harmony and unintended consequences may more likely consequence rather than the willed effect. Taoism does not identify i'southward will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must identify their volition in harmony with the natural universe.[62] Thus, a potentially harmful interference may exist avoided, and in this mode, goals tin can be achieved effortlessly.[63] [64] "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come up into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction."[59]

Ziran [edit]

Ziran (自然; zìrán ; tzu-jan ; lit. "self-and so", "self-arrangement"[65]) is regarded as a key value in Taoism.[66] Information technology describes the "primordial country" of all things[67] too as a basic graphic symbol of the Tao,[68] and is usually associated with spontaneity and creativity.[69] To attain naturalness, one has to place with the Tao;[68] this involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire, and affectionate simplicity.[66]

An often cited metaphor for naturalness is pu (樸; pǔ, pú ; p'u ; lit. "uncut woods"), the "uncarved block", which represents the "original nature... prior to the imprint of culture" of an private.[70] It is usually referred to as a land one returns to.[71]

Iii Treasures [edit]

The Taoist 3 Treasures or Three Jewels (三寶; sānbǎo ) comprise the basic virtues of ci (慈; cí , usually translated every bit pity), jian (儉; jiǎn , usually translated as moderation), and bugan wei tianxia xian (不敢爲天下先; bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān , literally "not daring to act as kickoff nether the heavens", simply unremarkably translated as humility).

As the practical, political side of Taoist philosophy, Arthur Waley translated them equally "abstention from aggressive war and capital penalization", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active say-so".[72]

The Three Treasures tin also refer to jing, qi and shen (精氣神; jīng-qì-shén ; jing is commonly translated equally essence, qi equally life strength, and shen as spirit). These terms are elements of the traditional Chinese concept of the human body, which shares its cosmological foundation—Yinyangism or the Naturalists—with Taoism. Within this framework, they play an important role in neidan ("Taoist Inner Abracadabra").[73]

Cosmology [edit]

Taoist cosmology is circadian—the universe is seen as being in a abiding process of re-creating itself.[74] Evolution and 'extremes see' are chief characters.[65] Taoist cosmology shares similar views with the School of Naturalists (Yinyang)[29] which was headed by Zou Yan (305–240 BCE). The school's tenets harmonized the concepts of the Wu Xing (Five Elements) and yin and yang. In this spirit, the universe is seen as existence in a constant process of re-creating itself, as everything that exists is a mere aspect of qi, which "condensed, becomes life; diluted, information technology is indefinite potential".[74] Qi is in a perpetual transformation betwixt its condensed and diluted state.[75] These ii different states of qi, on the other paw, are embodiments of the abstract entities of yin and yang,[75] two complementary extremes that constantly play against and with each other and ane cannot be without the other.[76]

Human being beings are seen equally a microcosm of the universe,[xx] and for instance incorporate the Wu Xing in form of the zang-fu organs.[77] As a issue, it is believed that a deeper understanding of the universe tin be accomplished by understanding oneself.[78]

Theology [edit]

Taoist theology can be defined equally apophatic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness and unknowable nature of the Tao, and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. This is ane of the core beliefs that nearly all the sects share.[34]

Taoist orders commonly nowadays the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities, visualizing the bureaucracy emanating from the Tao. Laozi is considered the incarnation of one of the 3 Purities and worshiped every bit the antecedent of the philosophical doctrine.[25] [79]

Different branches of Taoism oft have differing pantheons of lesser deities, where these deities reflect different notions of cosmology.[80] Lesser deities also may be promoted or demoted for their activity.[81] Some varieties of popular Chinese organized religion contain the Jade Emperor, derived from the main of the Three Purities, as a representation of the nearly high God.

Persons from the history of Taoism, and people who are considered to have become immortals (xian), are venerated besides by both clergy and laypeople.

Despite these hierarchies of deities, traditional conceptions of Tao should non exist dislocated with the Western theism. Being ane with the Tao does not necessarily indicate a union with an eternal spirit in, for example, the Hindu sense.[55] [62]

Texts [edit]

Tao Te Ching [edit]

1770 Wang Bi edition of the Tao Te Ching

The Tao Te Ching or Daodejing is widely considered the most influential Taoist text.[82] According to legend, it was written past Laozi,[83] and often the book is but referred to equally the Laozi. Authorship, precise engagement of origin, and even unity of the text are still subject of fence,[84] and volition probably never exist known with certainty.[85] The earliest texts of the Tao Te Ching that have been excavated (written on bamboo tablets) appointment back to the late quaternary century BCE.[86] Throughout the history of religious Taoism, the Tao Te Ching has been used as a ritual text.[87]

The famous opening lines of the Tao Te Ching are:

道可道非常道 (pinyin: dào kĕ dào fēi cháng dào )
The Tao that tin can be told is non the eternal Tao

名可名非常名 (pinyin: míng kĕ míng fēi cháng míng )
The name that tin can exist named is non the eternal name.[88]

There is significant, at times acrimonious, debate regarding which English translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferable, and which detail translation methodology is best.[89] The Tao Te Ching is not thematically ordered. The main themes of the text are repeatedly expressed using variant formulations, often with only a slight divergence.[90]

The leading themes circumduct around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao is said to be ineffable and accomplishes nifty things through small ways.[91] Aboriginal commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are of import texts in their own right. Perhaps the oldest one, the Heshang Gong commentary, was nearly probable written in the 2nd century CE.[92] Other of import commentaries include the i from Wang Bi and the Xiang'er.[93]

Zhuangzi [edit]

The Zhuangzi or Chuang Tzu (莊子), named after its traditional writer Zhuangzi, is a blended of writings from diverse sources, and is generally considered the virtually important of all Taoist writings.[94] The commentator Guo Xiang (c. CE 300) helped establish the text as an important source for Taoist thought. The traditional view is that Zhuangzi himself wrote the start 7 chapters (the "inner chapters") and his students and related thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the outer and miscellaneous capacity). The piece of work uses anecdotes, parables and dialogues to express one of its main themes, that is aligning oneself to the laws of the natural earth and "the way" of the elements.[95] [96]

I Ching [edit]

The eight trigrams of the I Ching, known as bagua

The I Ching or Yijing was originally a divination system that had its origins around 1150 BCE.[97] Although it predates the first mentions of Tao as an organized system of philosophy and religious practice, this text later became of philosophical importance to Taoism and Confucianism.

The I Ching itself, shorn of its commentaries, consists of 64 combinations of 8 trigrams (called "hexagrams"), traditionally called by throwing coins or yarrow sticks, to requite the diviner some idea of the situation at hand and, through reading of the "irresolute lines", some thought of what is developing.[98]

The 64 original notations of the hexagrams in the IChing can also be read as a meditation on how change occurs, so it assists Taoists with managing yin and yang cycles equally Laozi advocated in the Tao Te Ching (the oldest known version of this text was dated to 400 BCE). More recently every bit recorded in the 18th century, the Taoist main Liu Yiming connected to advocate this usage.[99]

The Taoist Catechism [edit]

The Taoist Catechism ( 道藏 , Treasury of Tao) is also referred to every bit the Daozang. Information technology was originally compiled during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties. The extant version was published during the Ming Dynasty.[100] The Ming Daozang includes almost 1500 texts.[101] Following the example of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka, it is divided into three dong ( 洞 , "caves", "grottoes"). They are bundled from "highest" to "lowest":[102]

  1. The Zhen ("real" or "truth" 眞 ) grotto. Includes the Shangqing texts.
  2. The Xuan ("mystery" 玄 ) grotto. Includes the Lingbao scriptures.
  3. The Shen ("divine" 神 ) grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan ( 茅山 ) revelations.

Taoist generally do non consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed downwardly for generations from teacher to educatee.[103]

The Shangqing School has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural written report. It is believed that by reciting certain texts often plenty ane will be rewarded with immortality.[104]

Other texts [edit]

While the Tao Te Ching is most famous, there are many other of import texts in traditional Taoism. Taishang Ganying Pian ("Treatise of the Exalted I on Response and Retribution") discusses sin and ethics, and has become a popular morality tract in the terminal few centuries.[105] It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives. The wicked, and their descendants, will endure and have shortened lives.[91]

Symbols and images [edit]

Basic depiction of the taijitu symbol without trigrams

The taijitu (太極圖; tàijítú ; commonly known as the "yin and yang symbol" or simply the "yin yang") and the Bagua 八卦 ("8 Trigrams") have importance in Taoist symbolism.[106] In this cosmology, the universe creates itself out of a principal anarchy of textile free energy, organized into the cycles of Yin and Yang and formed into objects and lives. Yin is the receptive and Yang is the active principle, seen in all forms of change and difference such every bit the almanac flavor cycles, the natural landscape, the formation of both men and women as characters, and sociopolitical history.[107] While almost all Taoist organizations brand use of information technology, its principles have influenced Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese theory. One tin can see this symbol every bit a decorative element on Taoist organization flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. According to Song dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century CE.[108] Previously, a tiger and a dragon had symbolized yin and yang.[108]

Taoist temples may wing square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, bringing good fortune, increasing life bridge, etc.[109] Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.[110]

A zigzag with vii stars is sometimes displayed, representing the Big Dipper (or the Bushel, the Chinese equivalent). In the Shang Dynasty of the 2nd millennium BCE, Chinese thought regarded the Big Dipper as a deity, while during the Han Dynasty, it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar god, Taiyi.[111]

Taoist temples in southern Prc and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature dragons and phoenixes made from multicolored ceramic tiles. They besides represent the harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix representing yin). A related symbol is the flaming pearl, which may be seen on such roofs betwixt two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master.[112] In full general though, Chinese Taoist compages lacks universal features that distinguish it from other structures.[113]

Practices [edit]

Rituals [edit]

In aboriginal times, before the Taoism religion was founded, food would sometimes exist fix out as a cede to the spirits of the deceased or the gods. This could include slaughtered animals, such equally pigs and ducks, or fruit. The Taoist Celestial Chief Zhang Daoling rejected nutrient and animal sacrifices to the Gods. He tore apart temples, which demanded animal cede and drove away its priests. This rejection of sacrifices has continued into the modern 24-hour interval, as Taoism Temples are not allowed to employ animal sacrifices (with the exception of folk temples or local tradition.)[114] Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of joss newspaper, or hell money, on the assumption that images thus consumed by the burn down will reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual particular—in the spirit world, making them available for revered ancestors and departed loved ones. The joss newspaper is mostly used when memorializing ancestors, such as washed during the Qingming festival.

Besides on particular holidays, street parades have place. These are lively diplomacy that involve firecrackers and blossom-covered floats dissemination traditional music. They also variously include lion dances and dragon dances; human-occupied puppets (oftentimes of the "Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"), Kungfu-practicing and palanquins carrying god-images. The various participants are not considered performers, merely rather possessed past the gods and spirits in question.[115]

Fortune-telling—including astrology, I Ching, and other forms of divination—has long been considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. Mediumship is also widely encountered in some sects. There is an academic and social distinction between martial forms of mediumship (such as tongji) and the spirit-writing that is typically good through planchette writing.[116]

Physical cultivation [edit]

Chinese woodblock illustration of a waidan alchemical refining furnace, 1856 Illustrated Transmission of External Medicine ( 外科圖說 )

A recurrent and important element of Taoism are rituals, exercises and substances aiming at aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, at undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, or at improving physical wellness and thereby extending one's life, ideally to the point of immortality.[117] Enlightened and immortal beings are referred to equally xian.

A characteristic method aiming for longevity is Taoist abracadabra. Already in very early on Taoist scriptures—like the Taiping Jing and the Baopuzi—alchemical formulas for achieving immortality were outlined.[118]

A number of martial arts traditions, specially the ones falling under the category of Neijia (like T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Pa Kwa Chang and Xing Yi Quan) embody Taoist principles to a significant extent, and some practitioners consider their art a means of practicing Taoism.[119]

Club [edit]

Adherents [edit]

The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a diverseness of factors including defining Taoism. According to a survey of faith in China in the year 2010, the number of people practicing some form of Chinese folk religion is well-nigh to 950 million (70% of the Chinese).[120] Among these, 173 million (13%) merits an affiliation with Taoist practices.[120] Furthermore, 12 million people claim to be "Taoists", a term traditionally used exclusively for initiates, priests and experts of Taoist rituals and methods.[120]

Virtually Chinese people and many others accept been influenced in some fashion by Taoist traditions. Since the creation of the People's Republic of China, the government has encouraged a revival of Taoist traditions in codified settings. In 1956, the Chinese Taoist Association was formed to administrate the activities of all registered Taoist orders, and received official approval in 1957. It was disbanded during the Cultural Revolution under Mao Zedong, but was reestablished in 1980. The headquarters of the association are at the Baiyunguan, or White Cloud Temple of Beijing, belonging to the Longmen branch of Quanzhen Taoism.[121] Since 1980, many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt, both belonging to the Zhengyi or Quanzhen schools, and clergy ordination has been resumed.

Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Nihon, and Vietnam. Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following until modern times. In Taiwan, 7.five meg people (33% of the population) identify themselves as Taoists.[122] Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of Hong Kong[123] and Singapore[124] show that, respectively, 14% and 11% of the people of these cities place equally Taoists.

Followers of Taoism are besides present in Chinese émigré communities outside Asia. In addition, it has attracted followers with no Chinese heritage. For case, in Brazil there are Taoist temples in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro which are affiliated with the Taoist Guild of China. Membership of these temples is entirely of non-Chinese beginnings.[125]

Art and poesy [edit]

Throughout Chinese history, there have been many examples of art being influenced by Taoist thought. Notable painters influenced by Taoism include Wu Wei, Huang Gongwang, Mi Fu, Muqi Fachang, Shitao, Ni Zan, Tang Mi, and Wang Zengzu.[126] Taoist arts represents the diverse regions, dialects, and fourth dimension spans that are commonly associated with Taoism. Ancient Taoist art was commissioned past the aristocracy; however, scholars masters and adepts also straight engaged in the art themselves.[127]

Political aspects [edit]

Taoism never had a unified political theory. While Huang-Lao's positions justified a stiff emperor as the legitimate ruler,[128] the "primitivists" (like in the chapters 8-xi of the Zhuangzi) argued strongly for a radical anarchism. A more moderate position is presented in the Inner Chapters of the Zhuangzi in which the political life is presented with disdain and some kind of pluralism or perspectivism is preferred.[129] The syncretist position in texts like the Huainanzi and some Outer Chapters of the Zhuangzi blended some Taoist positions with Confucian ones.[130]

Relations with other religions and philosophies [edit]

Many scholars believe Taoism arose as a countermovement to Confucianism.[131] The philosophical terms Tao and De are indeed shared by both Taoism and Confucianism.[132] Zhuangzi explicitly criticized Confucian and Mohist tenets in his piece of work. In general, Taoism rejects the Confucian emphasis on rituals, hierarchical social order, and conventional morality, and favors "naturalness", spontaneity, and individualism instead.[133]

The entry of Buddhism into People's republic of china was marked by significant interaction and syncretism with Taoism.[134] Originally seen equally a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary.[135] Representatives of early on Chinese Buddhism, like Sengzhao and Tao Sheng, knew and were deeply influenced by the Taoist keystone texts.[136]

Taoism peculiarly shaped the development of Chan (Zen) Buddhism,[137] introducing elements like the concept of naturalness, distrust of scripture and text, and emphasis on embracing "this life" and living in the "every-moment".[138]

On the other hand, Taoism also incorporated Buddhist elements during the Tang dynasty. Examples of such influence include monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture in tripartite system in sure sects.

Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced i another.[139] For example, Wang Bi, 1 of the almost influential philosophical commentators on Laozi (and the I Ching), was a Confucian.[140] The iii rivals besides share some like values, with all three embracing a humanist philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously.[141] This became institutionalized when aspects of the three schools were synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school.[142]

Some authors have undertaken comparative studies of Taoism and Christianity. This has been of interest for students of the history of religion such as J. J. Thousand. de Groot,[143] amid others. A comparison of the teachings of Laozi and Jesus of Nazareth has been fabricated by several authors, such as Martin Aronson,[144] and Toropov & Hansen (2002), who believe that there are parallels that should not be ignored.[145] In the opinion of J. Isamu Yamamoto, the main difference is that Christianity preaches a personal God while Taoism does not.[146] Even so, a number of authors, including Lin Yutang,[147] have argued that some moral and ethical tenets of the religions are similar.[148] [149] In neighboring Vietnam, Taoist values accept been shown to conform to social norms and formed emerging sociocultural beliefs together with Confucianism.[150]

See besides [edit]

  • Bagua
  • Baopuzi
  • Chinese culture
  • Chinese ritual mastery traditions
  • Dragon Gate Taoism
  • Five precepts (Taoism)
  • Hong Kong Taoist Clan
  • Lingbao School
  • Neidan
  • Pu (Taoism)
  • Qingjing Jing
  • Quanzhen Taoism
  • Shangqing School
  • Taiji
  • Tao Te Ching
  • Taoism in Hong Kong
  • Taoism in Malaysia
  • Taoism in Singapore
  • Taoism in Vietnam
  • Taoist Church of Italy
  • Taoist coin charm
  • Taoist diet
  • Taoist music
  • Taoist schools
  • Taoist Tai Chi
  • Ten precepts (Taoism)
  • Fashion of the Angelic Masters
  • Mode of the Five Pecks of Rice
  • Yao Taoism
  • Zhengyi Taoism
  • Zhizha

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  • Schipper, Kristopher; Verellen, Franciscus (2004). The Taoist Canon: A Historical Companion to the Taotsang. Chicago: University of Chicago.
  • Sharot, Stephen (2001). A Comparative Sociology of Earth Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion. New York: NYU Press. ISBN0-8147-9805-five.
  • Silvers, Brock (2005). The Taoist Manual. Honolulu: Sacred Mountain Press.
  • Slingerland, Edward Gilman (2003). Effortless Action: Wu-Wei equally Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Platonic in Early China. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-513899-iii.
  • Toropov, Brandon; Hansen, Chadwick (2002). "Chapter fifteen: The Tao and the Judeo-Christian Tradition". The Consummate Idiot's Guide to Taoism. ISBN978-i-44-069573-5.
  • Van Voorst, Robert E. (2005). Anthology of World Scriptures. Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN978-0-534-52099-ane.
  • Waley, Arthur (1958). The Manner and Its Power: A Study of the Tao Te Ching and Its Place in Chinese Thought . Grove Printing. ISBN0-8021-5085-3.
  • Watts, Alan (1975). Tao: The Watercourse Manner . New York: Pantheon. ISBN978-0-394-73311-1.
  • Werblowsky, Raphael Jehudah Zwi (2002). The Beaten Track of Scientific discipline: The Life and Work of J.J.M. de Groot. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
  • Wenzel-Teuber, Katharina; Strait, David (2012). "People's Republic of People's republic of china: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011" (PDF). Religions & Christianity in Today's Red china. 2 (3). ISSN 2192-9289. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 April 2017.
  • Wu, Nengchang (2014). "Religion and Club. A Summary of French Studies on Chinese Religion". Review of Organized religion and Chinese Society. i: 104–127. doi:10.1163/22143955-04102008. Archived from the original on 27 Baronial 2017.
  • Yamamoto, J. Isamu (1998). Buddhism, Taoism, and Other Far Eastern Religions. Zondervan.
  • Zhiming, Yuan (2010). Lao Tzu and the Bible. AuthorHous. ISBN9781449091101.

Further reading [edit]

  • Barrett, Rick (2006). Taijiquan: Through the Western Gate. Blue Snake Books. ISBNi-58394-139-8.
  • Bertschinger, Richard (2011). The Secret of Everlasting Life: The first translation of the ancient Chinese text on immortality. Singing Dragon. ISBN978-1-84819-048-ane.
  • Carr, David T.; Zhang, Canhui (2004). Space, Time, and Culture. Springer. ISBNane-4020-2823-7.
  • Chang, Stephen T. (1985). The Nifty Tao. Tao Longevity LLC. ISBN0-942196-01-5.
  • Jones, Richard H. (2004). Mysticism and Morality: a new look at onetime questions. Lexington Books. ISBN0-7391-0784-4.
  • Keller, Catherine (2003). The Face up of the Deep: A Theology of Becoming. Routledge. ISBN0-415-25648-8.
  • Klaus, Hilmar (2009). The Tao of Wisdom. Laozi – Taodejing (in Chinese, English, and German). Aachen: Hochschulverlag. ISBN978-3-8107-0055-1.
  • Kohn, Livia (1993). The Taoist Experience: An Anthology. Albany: SUNY Printing. ISBN978-0-7914-1579-5.
  • Komjathy, Louis (2013). The Taoist Tradition: An Introduction. London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN978-1441168733.
  • Komjathy, Louis (2014). Taoism: A Guide for the Perplexed. London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN978-1441148155.
  • Mair, Victor H (1983). Experimental Essays on Chuang-tzu. Hawaii. ISBN0-88706-967-iii.
  • Martin, William (2005). A Path And A Do: Using Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching as a Guide to an Awakened Spiritual Life. Marlowe & Company. ISBNi-56924-390-five.
  • Pas, Julian F.; Leung, Human Kam (1998). Historical Dictionary of Taoism. Scarecrow Press. ISBN0-8108-3369-seven.
  • Robinet, Isabelle (1993) [1989]. Taoist Meditation: The Mao-shan Tradition of Great Purity. Albany: SUNY Printing.
  • Saso, Michael R. (1990). Taoism and the Rite of Catholic Renewal (2nd ed.). Pullman: Washington Land University Press. ISBN978-0-87422-054-4.
  • The Taoist Translations of Thomas Cleary: A Reader's Guide. Shambala Publications.
  • Sivin, Nathan (1968). Chinese Alchemy: Preliminary Studies. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-12150-eight.
  • Sommer, Deborah (1995). Chinese Religion: An Anthology of Sources. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-508895-3.
  • Tian, Chenshan (2005). Chinese Dialectics: From Yijing To Marxism. Lanham: Lexington Books. ISBN0-7391-0922-7.
  • Welch, H.; Seidel, A. (1979). Facets of Taoism. New Oasis: Yale University Press. ISBN0-300-01695-6.
  • Zhuangzi (2018). Kalinke, Viktor (ed.). Gesamttext und Materialien (in Chinese and High german). Leipzig: Leipziger Literaturverlag. ISBN978-3-86660-222-9. —with Pinyin transcription, interlinear and literary translation, contains a complete dictionary of the book Zhuangzi and a concordance to Laozi.
Popular (non-academic) interpretations of Taoism
  • Dyer, Wayne (2007). Change Your Thoughts, Alter Your Life: Living the Wisdom of the Tao. Hay Business firm. ISBN978-one-4019-1750-0.
  • Gerstner, Ansgar (2009). The Tao of Business organisation. Earnshaw Books. ISBN978-988-eighteen-1547-seven.
  • Goodspeed, Bennett W. (1983). The Tao Jones Averages: A Guide to Whole-Brained Investing . E.P. Dutton. ISBN9780525242017.
  • Hoff, Benjamin (1983). The Tao of Pooh. Penguin. ISBN978-0-14-006747-7.
  • Wilde, Stuart (1995). Infinite Self: 33 Steps to Reclaiming Your Inner Ability. Hay House. ISBN978-1-56170-349-4.
  • The Tao of Steve, a 2000 film directed by Jenniphr Goodman and starring Donal Logue.

External links [edit]

  • BBC religions – Taoism
  • Taoism on In Our Time at the BBC
  • "Taoist philosophy". Net Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  • Early Taoist texts [ permanent expressionless link ] – Chinese Text Project
  • FYSK Taoist Civilization Centre Database [ permanent dead link ]
  • Patheos Library – Taoism
  • Tao Directory
  • Taoist Texts at the Internet Sacred Text Archive
  • Wikipedia of Taoism [ dead link ]
  • Collection: "Daoism/Taoism" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism

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